Assignment 1 Overview: Transillumination microscopy

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20.309: Biological Instrumentation and Measurement

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Introduction

Over the next few weeks, you will build an optical microscope using lenses, mirrors, filters, optical mounts, CCD cameras, lasers, and other components in the lab. The work is divided into 5 assignments. Each assignment requires some lab work, some analysis, lots of clear thinking, and an individually written report turned in on Stellar.

Assignment 1

Robert Hooke's microscope

In this first assignment, you will build a compound microscope, determine its magnification, and attempt to measure the size of microscopic objects. The instrument you create will have a great deal in common with the microscope Robert Hooke built in the mid-1660s. Hooke meticulously documented his microscopic observations and published them in a popular volume called Micrographia in 1665. The measurements you make in part 1 will call to mind Hooke's early quantification of the size of plant cells (see quote at top of page). You will grapple with many of the same challenges Hooke faced: resolution, contrast, field of view, optical aberrations, and obscurity of thick samples. (To overcome the thick sample problem, Hooke used a very sharp knife to cut an "exceeding thin" slice of cork — a technique still in everyday use.)

Hooke spent countless hours hand drawing the breathtaking illustrations for Micrographia. A CCD camera in the image plane of your microscope will provide a huge advantage. You will be able to record micrographs nearly as spectacular as Hooke's in a fraction of a second and with far less skill. (As a young man, Hooke apprenticed as a painter. The guy could draw.)

Specimens in part 1 will be illuminated by an LED that shines light through the sample plane. The illumination will show up as a bright background in your images. The unsurprising name of this method is: transilluminated, bright field microscopy. Transillumination works well for samples that absorb or scatter a lot of light. Most biological samples have low contrast when imaged this way. Despite the limitations of bright field microscopy, many important discoveries were made with this simple method. Hooke was an early discoverer of plant cells, but he was mostly interested in how the cell structure of his cork sample explained the material's unique mechanical properties. He soon trained his microscope on other things (like glass canes, a bloodsucking louse, and feathers).

Barbara McClintock with her microscope

Likely inspired by Micrographia, a Dutch draper named Anton van Leeuwenhoek honed his lens-making skills and developed his own microscope. Van Leeuwenhoek was intensely interested in the tiny creatures he dubbed "animalcules" that he observed in water, blood, semen, and other specimens. Looking at samples of plaque from his own mouth, van Leeuwenhoek recorded: "I then most always saw, with great wonder, that in the said matter there were many very little living animalcules, very prettily a-moving. The biggest sort. . . had a very strong and swift motion, and shot through the water (or spittle) like a pike does through the water. Looking at the second sort. . . oft-times spun round like a top. . . and these were far more in number." (Sadly, the colorful term "animalcule" did not have as much staying power as "cell.") Van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria, protozoa, spermatozoa, rotifers, Hydra, Volvox, and parthenogenesis in aphids. He was truly the first microbiologist.

20.309 microscope

Perhaps the most remarkable discovery ever made with nothing but a simple light microscope was genetic transposition. Barbara McClintock was a talented microscopist who developed a technique that enabled her to distinguish individual chromosomes in Zea mays (corn) plant cells. One important element of her method was that she prepared her samples by squashing them instead of cutting thin slices as Hooke did 300 years earlier. She observed genetic transposition through an optical microscope in 1944, nearly 10 years before the chemical structure of DNA was deciphered. Several decades elapsed before molecular techniques sufficiently sophisticated to confirm her discovery were developed.[1] McClintock was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1983 for her discovery.

An example microscope made by the instructors will be available in the lab for you to examine. Make sure to construct your microscope well. Mechanical stability will be crucial for the particle tracking experiments in the last part of the lab. The required stability specification will be achieved through good design and careful construction — not by indiscriminate over-tightening of screws.

Assignment Details

This assignment has 4 parts:

  1. A few questions to answer before you start your lab work.;
  2. Some warm-up lab exercises;
  3. You will design your microscope; and finally you will
  4. Build a transilluminated microscope

You will add fluorescence capability in the next part of the lab.

Turn in all of your work on Stellar in a single PDF file named <lastname><firstname>Assignment1.pdf.


In the lab

Work through the lab instructions below and answer the following questions along the way.

Part 1: getting oriented

  1. Report the focal lengths of the mystery lenses A through D.
  2. For 5 different object distances, measure the image height, and image distance. Plot (1/si vs. 1/f - 1/s0, as well as hi/ho vs si/so. Do the relationships between M, Si and So match the theory?
  3. Measure the noise spectrum of the MantaG CCD camera. Plot pixel variance vs. pixel mean on a log-log scale. Did the plot look the way you expected? How does noise vary as a function of light intensity?

Part 2: building the microscope

  1. Assemble your microscope
  2. Record an image of the micro ruler at 10x and 40x magnification. Record an image of the ronchi ruler at 100x magnification. Save these images as .mat files so that you can analyze them after the lab.

After the lab

  1. In a table, report the object and image height, nominal and actual magnifications, and field of view for each objective
  2. Measure the size of the ‘3um beads’. Include a recorded image of the beads. Report the measured bead size and appropriate error.


Lab Instructions, Part 2: building a microscope

These I mention, that I may excite the World to enquire a little farther into the improvement of Sciences, and not think that either they or their predecessors have attained the utmost perfections of any one part of knowledge, and to throw off that lazy and pernicious principle, of being contented to know as much as their Fathers, Grandfathers, or great Grandfathers ever did, and to think they know enough, because they know somewhat more than the generality of the World besides:…Let us see what the improvement of Instruments can produce.

—Animadversions on the Machina Coelestis of Johannes Hevelius, 1674

Don't you just buy a [expletive deleted] microscope?

Anonymous 20.309 student, Fall 2007

Background materials and references

In this part of the lab you will jump right in to building a full-fledged microscope. The following online materials provide useful background.

Overview

Microscope block diagram

To get you started, here is a block diagram of a 20.309 microscope. Note that for Assignment 1, you will be building the brightfieqld (or transillumination) path. You should leave space for the fluorescence path, which you will complete next week.

20.309 microscope block diagram

Optical components

Below is a brief introduction to a few of the different components comprising your microscope. Various systems for optical construction are available based on rails, posts, cages, tubes, and all manner of little, metallic bits. The 20.309 microscope is constructed chiefly from cage and lens tube components made by a company called ThorLabs. The structure should be rigid, and the components sufficiently tightened so that your optics remain aligned even after moving your microscope. Understanding how all of the components work together can be daunting. Ask about any components that perplex you.

Lenses

Plano-convex spherical lenses are available with focal lengths of 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, and 200 mm. Plano-concave lenses with focal lengths of -30 and -50 are also available. It is best to mount most optics in short (e.g. 0.5") lens tubes. It is acceptable to mount a lens between the end of a tube and a tube ring or between two tube rings. In most cases, the convex side of the lens faces toward the collimated beam; the planar side goes toward the convergent rays.

  • Tip: Verify all optics before you use them by determining the focal length with a ruler. You can use the lens measuring station. Alternatively, you can use the ceiling fluorescent lamps as a light source and measure the exact distance between the lens(es) assessed and the lamp's image. Can you imagine a simple rig to evaluate negative focal lengths (of plano-concave lenses for instance)?
  • Tip: As you install lenses into your microscope, put a piece of tape on the lens tube showing focal length and orientation. This will help you both during construction and put-away. Save the lens storage boxes and return components to the correct boxes when you are done.
  • Handle lenses only by the edges. If a lens is dirty, first remove grit with a blast of clean air or CO2. Clean the lens by wiping with a folded piece of lens paper wetted with a drop of methanol. (Do not touch the part of the tissue you use for cleaning with your fingers.) In some cases, it may be helpful to hold the folded lens tissue in a hemostat. Ask an instructor if you need help.
Objective lenses

Please see the Nikon Introduction to Microscope Objectives at their excellent MicroscopyU website.

There are three objective lenses available in the lab: a 10×, a 40×, and a 100×. All of these are designed to use a 200 mm tube lens to form an image on the camera. An adapter ring converts the objective mounting threads to the SM1 threads used by the lens tube system.

The reference tube length for the Nikon objectives we will use is 200 mm. A 200 mm lens, placed 200 mm from the CCD, will produce the rated magnification M.
  • Working distance (WD) is the distance between the front objective lens surface and the cover slip, and so it is also approximately the distance to the front focal plane. In order to focus an image at the back focal plane of the tube lens, i.e., on the CCD array, the sample plane must coincide with the front focal plane in a 4f microscope arrangement. The stage is added to hold the sample in this plane.
  • The 100× objective is designed to be used with immersion oil. When using the 100× objective, place a drop of oil directly on the tip on the objective. Bring the drop in contact with the slide cover glass. After use, clean off the remaining oil by wicking it away with lens paper or a Kim-wipe. Do not put samples away dirty.
  • Note that the back focal plane (BFP) of the objective does not necessarily coincide with the rear of the objective housing. In fact, for the Nikon 40x objective the BFP is close to the blue ring. You will find its actual location when aligning the laser path in Part 2. The 200 mm distance labeled between the back of the objective housing and the tube lens is a recommendation from Nikon to enable optimal imaging. For details on the importance and origin of this distance please ask an instructor.
Sample stage

A precision Newport X/Y/Z stage[2] with a sample holder mounted on a post, or a Thorlabs Max312D stage, also with a sample holder, is available at each lab station. The Newport stage setup is top-heavy. Avoid accidents by ensuring that the post base is always attached to an optical breadboard or table. Leave the stage at the lab station when you are done with it. For the Thorlabs stages, it is still a good idea to bolt them down so that your area of interest (AOI) stays in your microscope field of view (FOV).

All stage axes have limited adjustment range, especially the Thorlabs stages. To deal with this, it is best to leave the stage base bolts and sample holder bolts loose and move the sample holder in x, y and z to roughly find your AOI. Once you are on or near your AOI, tighten the bolts and use the micrometers to center your image. One trick here is to get the z clamped first, then deal with x and y.

CCD camera

The microscope you will build does not have an eyepiece for direct visual observation. Instead, images will be captured with a CCD camera[3]. Its monochrome (black and white) sensor contains a grid of 656×492 square pixels that measure 7.4 μm on a side. An adapter ring converts the C-mount thread on the camera to SM1.

Design

Sketch out the design for your microscope on paper (or print out the above diagram). For this part of the lab, you can just draw the bright field illumination path. Label all the optical elements (lenses, mirrors, microscope objectives, and camera), distances, lens specifications, and orientations.

  • Some elements must be positioned precise distances apart; other distances are not critical. Use ray-tracing to determine when this is the case. Which distances in your bright-field microscope will be critical? Which will be forgiving or unessential? Which will change with each objective lens (10×, 40× and 100×)?
  • Which sections of the light path can be open (strut-based structure, cage rods)? Which would better enclosed (Thorlabs lens tubes)?
  • In what way will the illumination LED color affect your design? your results?
  • Which lens will you use between the LED and the sample for bright field transmitted light imaging?

Next, take a look at the example microscope in the lab. This microscope is here for your reference, but please do not touch, alter, or remove parts from the example microscope.

The general layout of the 20.309 microscope is compact and stand-alone; it fits and can be transported onto a breadboard

Can you identify all the components of your diagram? Try to think about the purpose of each component, and why it is laid out a particular way. Once you're satisfied that you understand the big picture, it's time to build your own!

A few tips to keep in mind:

  • Reproduce the general layout of the example microscope: it grants compactness and allows your device to be a stand-alone breadboard-transportable microscope.
  • Even though you're first focusing on the bright-field imaging leg of your microscope, take into consideration some requirements pertinent to the fluorescence imaging elements you'll add to your system next week:

Exercise 1: Assemble the microscope

Assemble the base

Gather the following parts:

  • On a 1' x 2' x 1/2" optical breadboard, align the vertical Thorlabs P14 (1.5" diameter mounting post) with a breadboard hole that is 11 positions from a short side and 5 positions from a long side. This allows enough free space on the breadboard such that either the Newport or the Thorlabs stages may be utilized. (Note that the above picture is in error as the P14 is only 9 positions from a short side of the breadboard.)

Assemble the illuminator

Gather parts:

Most of the tools you will need are located in the drawers next to your lab station. Hex keys (also called Allen wrenches) are used to operate SHCSs. Some hex keys have a flat end and others have a ball on the end, called balldrivers. The ball makes it possible to use the driver at an angle to the screw axis, which is very useful in tight spaces. You can get things tighter (and tight things looser) with a flat driver. Here is a list of the tools you will need:

You will also need to use an adjustable spanner wrench. The adjustable spanner resides at the lens cleaning station. There are only one or two of these in the lab. It is likely that one of your classmates neglected to return it to the proper place. This situation can frequently be remedied by yelling, "who has the adjustable spanner wrench?" at the top of your lungs. Try not to use any expletives. And please return the adjustable spanner wrench to the lens cleaning station when you are done.

  • Mount the LED between two SM2RR retaining rings in an LCP01 cage plate.
    • Screw in one SM2RR to a depth of 1 mm.
    • Run the wires of the LED through the opening in the LCP01 and insert the LED until it is resting on the retaining ring. It will get sandwiched in-between two retaining rings.
    • Add a second SM2RR retaining ring to secure the LED. Use the SPW801 adjustable spanner wrench or a small flat bladed screwdriver to tighten the retaining ring. The SPW801 can be opened until its width matches the SM2RR diameter, the separation between the ring's notches.

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  • Thread an SM1RR retaining ring in another SM1L05 lens tube and use the SPW602 spanner wrench to drive it about 90% of the way down the tube.
  • Place the 25 mm lens in the SM1L05 lens tube with its curved side facing the external threads of the tube.
    • Don't just drop the lens in. Use lens paper to gently lower the lens into the tube.
    • Don't touch the lens while you are putting it in.
  • Thread a second SM1RR retaining ring into the lens tube and tighten it with the SPW602 spanner wrench.

LensInLensTube.JPG

  • Screw the lens tube with the 25 mm lens a into an LCP02

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  • Connect the LCP02 and the LCP02 together using cage rods
  • Connect the LED
    • A red or a blue LED illuminator can be used for bright-field transmitted light imaging. On one hand a blue LED yields a better bright-field resolution, however bright-field resolution is not usually critical in this lab. On the other hand, a red LED allows simultaneous fluorescent and bright-field imaging in Parts 2 and 3, and this can be quite useful when trying to bring a fluorescent sample into focus.
    • Turn the power supply on.
    • Make sure the power supply is not enabled (green LED below the OUTPUT button is not lit).
    • Use the righthand set of knobs to set the current and voltage
      • Adjust the CH1/MASTER VOLTAGE knob so the display reads about 5 Volts.
      • Adjust the CH1/MASTER CURRENT knob to so the display reads 0.1 Amps.
      • IMPORTANT: Never set the CURRENT to a value greater than 0.5A, as this will burn out the LED.
    • Connect the + (red) terminal of channel CH1 on the power supply to the red wire of the LED.
    • Connect the - (black) terminal of channel CH1 on the power supply to the black wire of the LED.
    • Press the OUTPUT button to enable the power supply and light the LED.
    • Adjust the LED brightness using the power supply's CURRENT knob.

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Warning.jpg Double check your wiring before powering the LED. The LED can be damaged by excessive current. Limit the driving current to 0.5 A to protect the LED.


  • Collimate the illuminator
    • Slide the lens along the cage rods until the light from the LED focuses at some point far away (like on the wall)
    • Tighten the set screws to keep the lens a fixed distance from the LED. There is no need to overnighted the screws, just make sure that the lens doesn't slide around or move relative to the LED.

Assemble the objective cage components

      • Set the distance between the top of the breadboard and the top surface of the upper LCP01 to 13.5 cm. It is important to ensure your construction is compatible with either of the two distinct stage mounting platforms available in the 20.309 lab (either Newport or Thorlabs model). If you find it inconvenient to measure this, there is a Handy Scope Height Thingama-jig floating around the lab. Ask your instructor(s). Also, note that the stages are very expensive; always lift them from the bottom.
    • Do insert the C6W cage cube that will later hold the dichroic mirror on while fluorescence imaging will rely. Be sure to keep the mounting struts fully recessed in the cube walls; their ends should not stick out, they would otherwise hinder maneuvers with dichroic-holding kinematic plate!
The mounting struts should remain recessed within the cage cube walls.
  • Verify the focal length of the lenses you selected. If you find an optic in the wrong box: identify the optic and replace it in the correct box or label the box correctly. (Ask an instructor if you can't find the right box. There are many boxes near the wire spools behind you as you stand at the wet bench.)
  • Check all your lenses for cleanliness before you use them. You'll save yourself some troubleshooting time and effort down the road!
  • Make sure all your components are "leveled" (horizontal, not slanted).
  • Use tube rings (and never an SM1T2, SM1V01, or SM1V05) to mount optics in lens tubes.
  • Use adjustable mounting components in front of the CCD camera so you can optimize and fine-tune the camera positing with respect to the imaging lens L2. Beware: never use an SM1T2 coupler without a locking ring — they are very difficult to remove if they are tightened against a lens tube or tube ring. Also put a quick-connect in your design such that the camera CCD will end up 200 mm from the back focal plane of the objective. Remember that the CCD is recessed inside the opening of the camera.
Adjustable Thorlabs SM1V05 and SM1T2 connectors precede the quick-connect union to the CCD camera.
  • Use only three cage rails to connect the C6W cage cube and the KCB containing the last silver mirror before the CCD camera, so you can easily take in and out the barrier filter (BF) that will later aid fluorescence-mode microscopy. Always place two rails at the top so that an alignment target can be hung if needed (the benefit will become more clear in Part 2).
Insertion and removal of optical components is facilitated by a three-strut-only link.
  • The Nikon objective lenses are designed to be paired with a 200 mm tube lens.
  • Assume that the objectives behave as ideal plano-convex lenses.
  • Fine focusing will be achieved by adjusting the height of the sample stage.
  • Tip: Throughout the optical microscopy lab, start the alignment with a 10× objective and then progress to 40× and 100×.


Assemble the remaining beam path

Putting it all together

Recording, displaying and saving images in MATLAB

Figure 1: The UsefulImageAquisition window can be used to (hopefully) easily control the camera settings. To run it, type "foo = UsefulImageAcquisition; foo.Initialize" into the MATLAB console window.
  1. Run the UsefulAcquisition tool
    • Launch MATLAB and in the command window type:
    • foo = UsefulImageAcquisition; 
      foo.Initialize 
    • The Image Acquisition window (Figure 1) will open with the controls for the camera.
    • The "Manta_G-032B" camera is configured to produce 12-bit, monochrome images. In this mode, the intensity of each pixel in the image will be represented by 12 binary digits, allowing a range of values from 0-4095.
    • In the Image Acquisition window set "Frame Rate" to 20. This will cause the camera to take 20 complete images per second (this will only be relevant when recording movies in Part 3 of the lab).
    • Click the "Start Preview" button. The live image from the camera should appear in the Preview pane.
    • If this does not produce a live image, use an appropriate expletive, and ask an instructor to figure out what the heck went wrong.
    • Change the "Exposure" setting to produce a good image. The value sets the exposure time for each frame in microseconds.
  2. Recording an image
    • In the Image Acquisition window, set "Number of Frames" to 1. This setting controls how many images MATLAB will record each time you press the "Acquire" button.
    • When you are happy with the image displayed by the live preview, press "Acquire". The live preview will stop.
    • The image is now stored in the foo.ImageData variable, which will update each time you acquire a new image. To copy the data into a new variable, choose a descriptive name for your image like 'microruler10x' and save it to your workspace by typing the following into the MATLAB command window:
    • microruler10x = foo.ImageData;
    • Next, in the MATLAB command window type
    • whos microruler10x 
    • This command will display relevant information about the new variable you’ve created. You should see that the image is represented as a 492x656 matrix of 16-bit integers.
  3. Displaying the image
    • You can display images using a variety of commands in MATLAB. In the optics bootcamp we used the imagesc command which scales the image intensity (the brightest pixel is white, the darkest is black). In some cases, like when you have very dim images, this command can be misleading. It’s better to use the un-scaled imshow command for quantitative measurements.
    • When the 12-bit numbers from the camera get transferred to the computer, they are converted to 16-bit numbers. 16-bit numbers can represent a range of values from 0-65535, while your 12-bit image only contains values from 0-4095. This leaves a considerable portion of the number range unoccupied. Consequently, if you type imshow( microruler10x ), you will see an image that looks almost completely black (try it!).
    • One way to make this work is to rescale your image to 16 bits: imshow( 65535/4095 * microruler10x )
    • An even better way to work with images in MATLAB is to convert them to double precision floating point format straightaway. Double precision floating point numbers can represent an extremely wide range of values with high precision. Convert the image to a double and rescale it using the following command:
    • microruler10x = double( microruler10x ) / 4095; 
    • This conversion has made your image into a double with a range of intensities from 0-1, with 1 being full intensity and 0 completely dark. Now try:
    • whos microruler10x
      imshow( microruler10x ) 
  4. Saving your image
    • Save images in a .mat format so that you can easily reload them into Matlab for later use.
    • save microrulerImages     % saves entire workspace to filename 'microrulerImages.mat'
      save microrulerImages image1 image2     %saves only variables image1 and image2 to filename 'microrulerImages.mat'
    • To reload your data the next time you open matlab, navigate to the folder where you saved your workspace, type
    • load microrulerImages 
    • If you want to save individual images as a .PNG (a good format for use in your report or other programs), the command might look something like:
    • imwrite( im2uint16( microruler10x ), 'microruler10x.png', 'png' );
    • Note that you can also use the File→Save As menu after displaying an image or figure. This is useful if you want to save additions to your images (like data cursors). However, we recommend always saving the raw data as .mat files so that you are able to re-process your images later.

Exercise 2: Measure the microscope's magnification

Example images included by past students in their Week 1 report: (top) Air Force target, (center) Silica spheres and dust, (bottom) Ronchi Ruling

Measuring the magnification of your microscope is a good way to verify that your instrument is functioning well. You should measure the magnification of any microscope you plan to use for making quantitative measurements of size. Use the measured value in your calculations, not the number printed on the objective. Consider the uncertainty in your measurement.

  1. Start the live preview using the UsefulImageAcquisition tool
  2. Ensure that the camera's field of view is approximately centered in the objective's field of view.
    • The objective has a larger FOV than the camera. Use the adjustment knobs on mirror M1 to traverse the objective's FOV horizontally and vertically. The FOV is approximately circular. Find a spot near the middle.
  3. Start with the 10x objective and a microruler calibration slide.
    • The microruler calibration slide has tick marks that are 10 um apart. Every 100 um, there is a longer tick mark.
    • Make sure that the side of the microruler with the pattern on it faces the objective. Imaging through the thick glass causes distortion and many other troubles.
  4. Record an image of the microruler.
  5. Use imdistline or the data cursor to measure a known distance between rulings in your image and compute the magnification.
    • When choosing a distance to measure, consider the factors that influence the uncertainty of your measurement.
  6. Repeat the magnification measurement for the 40x and 100x objectives.
    • With the 100x objective, you may want to substitute the microruler with a Ronchi Ruling, a grating with 600 line pairs per millimeter. Why is it not wise to use the Ronchi Ruling with the 10x objective?
  7. Save your images in a .mat file for later use in MATLAB or as a PNG image for use in your report or other programs.
  8. Using your magnification measurements, calculate the FOV of the microscope for each objective.

Exercise 3: Particle size measurement

Example image of 3.2 μm beads using the instructor microscope. Submit picture to replace this!

Now that you know the magnification of your instrument, use it to measure the size of some microscopic objects as imaged with the 40x objective lens only. Slides with 7.2 μm, 3.2 μm and 1 μm silica microspheres are available in the lab.

  1. Image 7.2 μm, 3.2 μm and 1 μm silica microspheres as described in the magnification measurement procedure (40x objective only).
  2. Measure and report the average size and uncertainty of the spheres in each sample. How many spheres should you measure?

Microscope storage

During the microscopy lab, approximately seven thousand optical components will be taken from stock, assembled into microscopes, and properly returned to their assigned places. Please observe the following:

  • Store your microscope in one of the cubby holes in 16-336 (not in the lab). If you use one of the high shelves, get somebody to help you lift.
  • Keep all of the boxes for the optics you use with your instrument to simplify putting things away.
  • Take a blue bin to store loose items (such as lens boxes) in.
  • Stages, CCD cameras, neutral density filters and barrier filters stay at the lab station. Do not store these with your microscope.
  • Return objective lenses to the drawer when you are not using them. (Do not store them with your microscope.)
  • The stages are very expensive. Always lift from the bottom.
  • If you break something (or discover something pre-broken for you), do not return it to the component stock. Give all broken items to an instructor. You will not be penalized for breaking something, but not reporting may be looked upon less kindly.

References

  1. See, for example: McClintock, B. The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize. PNAS. 1950; 36:344-355. [1], [2], and Endersby, Jim. A Guinea Pig's History of Biology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; 2007.
  2. Precision Newport X/Y/Z stages
  3. Allied Manta G032B
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